14. What is an equivalent in acid-base neutralization? How many equivalents are there per mole of the following: HCI, KOH, NH₃, H₂CO₃, H₃PO₄, HNO₃?

15. What is a milliequivalent? How many milliequivalents are present in a mole of H₂SO₄?

16. What are the Bronsted-Lowry definitions of acids and bases?

17. According to the traditional, or Arrhenius, definition of acid and base, KOH is the base in a potassium hydroxide solution. What is the base in such a solution, according to the Bronsted-Lowry theory? What is the conjugate acid of this B-L base?

18. What is meant by a conjugate acid-base pair in Bronsted-Lowry theory? If the acid is strong, will the conjugate base also be strong? Give an example.

19. Which of the following molecules or ions are Bronsted-Lowry acids and which are bases? In each case, what is the conjugate base or acid? What is the relative strength of each member of a conjugate pair?

NO₃^-, HBr, NH₃, SO_42-, H₃PO₄, H₂SO₄, HSO₄^-, NH₄⁺, H₂O

20. How does the Bronsted-Lowry theory explain the difference between strong and weak acids? In what sense is this a competition theory, and what entities are the competitors? For what do they compete? How does the great excess of H₂O molecules in aqueous solutions affect the situation?

21. Show that when the pH of a solution is the same as the pK_a of a dissociating solute, the concentrations of dissociated and undissociated species are equal.

22. Show that when the pH of a solution containing an acid is one pH unit lower than the pK_a of the acid, the undissociated acid and the acid anion are present in a 10:1 ratio.

23. What is a buffer? How does it help to control or stabilize pH? What substances are combined to form a buffer solution?

24. When acid is added to a buffer solution, what happens to the extra protons? What happens when base is added to a buffer?

25. What is meant by "buffer capacity"? What happens when this buffer capacity is exceeded?

26. What is an acid-base indicator? Why does a change in pH lead to a color change in the solution?